Cited references and notes

Machine intelligence and the Turing Test

1. A. M. Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59, 433–460 (1950).
2. A formal TT yearly contest, sponsored by Hugh Loebner and The Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies, accords a $2000 prize and medal to the most human-like computer contestant. Among the most well-known critics of the contest is Marvin Minsky, a professor of computer science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) who is considered by many to be “the father of AI.” Minsky has wittily sponsored a “Minsky Loebner Prize Revocation Prize.”
3. In May 2001 the IBM Academy of Technology and IBM Research held a conference and workshop on “Machine Intelligence and the Turing Test.” The conference speakers were: Jaime Carbonell (Carnegie Mellon University), Barbara Grosz (Harvard University), Jerry Hobbs (SR International), John Laird (University of Michigan), Doug Lenat (Cycorp, Inc.), Michael Mauldin (Virtual Personalities & Carnegie Mellon University) and Rosalind Picard (MIT). The IBM organizing team comprised: Joe Bigus, Ian Brackenbury (chair), Scott Fahlman, Joe Londa, Clifford Pickover, Yael Ravin, and Alan Webb. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions to the workshop report by: Nancy Alverado, Scott Fahlman, Charles Peck, and Steve R. White, fragments of which are given here in condensed form.
4. Y. Bar-Hillel, “Automatic Translation of Languages,” Advances in Computers, D. Booth and R. E. Meagher, Editors, Academic Press, New York (1960). This classic article on the NLU challenge is still often cited today.
5. See, for example, the Proceedings of the ANLP/NAACL 2000 Workshop on Conversational Systems, Seattle, WA, May 2000.
6. R. W. Picard, “Toward Computers That Recognize and Respond to User Emotion,” IBM Systems Journal 39, Nos. 3&4, 705–719 (2000).
7. “Enterprise Portals: Web Interfaces for Employees, Partners, and Customer Communities,” META Group (September 1999).
8. Intelligent Miner for Text, IBM Corporation, http://www.ibm.com/software/data/iminer/fortext.
9. See http://www.itri.brighton.ac.uk/events/senseval.
10. See http://www.itl.nist.gov/iaui/894.02/related_projects/muc/proceedings/muc_7_toc.html.
11. This technique has been successfully used by customers and partners to route customer e-mail to the right expert, based on the e-mail content. See http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/wwwr_thinkresearch.nsf/pages/email198.html.
12. Yahoo! is a large Web site featuring vast, manually maintained, taxonomies covering all manner of general-interest topics such as DIY (Do-It-Yourself), medicine, cooking recipes, arts, and sciences. Find out more at http://www.yahoo.com.
13. J. E. Laird, A. Newell, and P. S. Rosenbloom, “Soar: An Architecture for General Intelligence,” Artificial Intelligence 33, 1–64 (1987).
14. We are indebted to S. E. Fahlman of IBM and Carnegie Mellon University
    (http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/) for contributions to the sections on KR/KA and machine reasoning.
15. The Cyc knowledge base is an extensive knowledge base and inference engine system, with a core of over 1000000 hand-entered assertions (or “rules”) designed to capture a large portion of what we consider knowledge about the world. The effort was pioneered by Doug Lenat in 1984. For more information, see the Cycorp, Inc. Web site at http://www.cyc.com/.
16. See the Linguistic Data Consortium page at the University of Pennsylvania, http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/.
17. See http://www.darpa.mil/ipto/research/ (no longer active).
18. S. E. Fahlman, NETL: A System for Representing Real World Knowledge, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1979).

An architecture of diversity for commonsense reasoning

1. M. Minsky, The Emotion Machine, Pantheon, New York (forthcoming). Several chapters are on line at http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky.
2. The use of reading comprehension tests as a metric for evaluating story understanding systems was previously proposed in L. Hirschman, M. Light, E. Breck, and J. Burger, “Deep Read: A Reading Comprehension System,” Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, College Park, MD, June 1999, Association for Computational Linguistics (1999).
3. J. McCarthy, “Programs with Common Sense,” Proceedings of the Symposium on Mechanisation of Thought Processes, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London (1958), pp. 77–84.
4. J. McCarthy, “From Here to Human-Level Intelligence,” Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR'96), Cambridge, MA, November 1996, Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA (1996), pp. 640–646.
5. L. Morgenstern, “A Formal Theory of Multiple Agent Nonmonotonic Reasoning,” Proceedings of the Eighth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI Press, Menlo Park, CA (1990), pp. 538–544.
6. E. Davis, “The Naive Physics Perplex,” AI Magazine 19, No. 4, 51–79 (1998).
7. D. Lenat, “Cyc: A Large-Scale Investment in Knowledge Infrastructure,” Communications of the ACM 38, No. 11, 32–38 (1995).
8. More details can be found in E. T. Mueller, “Story Understanding,” to appear in Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, Nature Publishing Group, London (2002).
9. E. Charniak, Toward a Model of Children's Story Comprehension, Technical Report AITR-266, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA (1972).
10. R. C. Schank and R. P. Abelson, Scripts, Plans, Goals, and Understanding, L. Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ (1977).
11. R. E. Cullingford, Script Application: Computer Understanding of Newspaper Stories, Technical Report YALE/DCS/tr116, Computer Science Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT (1978).
12. R. Wilensky, Understanding Goal-Based Stories, Technical Report YALE/DCS/tr140, Computer Science Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT (1978).
13. M. G. Dyer, In-Depth Understanding, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1983).
14. A. Ram, Question-Driven Understanding: An Integrated Theory of Story Understanding, Memory, and Learning, Technical Report YALE/DCS/tr710, Computer Science Department, Yale University, New Haven, CT (1989).
15. C. Dolan, Tensor Manipulation Networks: Connectionist and Symbolic Approaches to Comprehension, Learning, and Planning, Technical Report 890030, Computer Science Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA (1989).
16. E. T. Mueller, Natural Language Processing with ThoughtTreasure, Signiform, New York (1998), full text of book available on line at http://www.signiform.com/tt/book/.
17. L. G. Alexander, Longman English Grammar, Longman, London (1988).
18. E. Davis, Representations of Commonsense Knowledge, Morgan Kauffman, San Mateo, CA (1990).
19. S. E. Fahlman, NETL: A System for Representing and Using Real-World Knowledge, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1979).
20. M. Shanahan, Solving the Frame Problem, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1997).
21. D. A. Randell, Z. Cui, and A. G. Cohn, “A Spatial Logic Based on Regions and Connection,” Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Knowledge Representation and Reasoning, Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA (1992), pp. 165–176.
22. B. Kuipers, “The Spatial Semantic Hierarchy,” Artificial Intelligence 119, 191–233 (2000).
23. P. Singh, “The Public Acquisition of Commonsense Knowledge,” Proceedings of the AAAI Spring Symposium on Acquiring (and Using) Linguistic (and World) Knowledge for Information Access, Palo Alto, CA, March 2002, American Association for Artificial Intelligence (2002).
24. M. Minsky, The Society of Mind, Simon & Schuster, New York (1985).
25. A. Sloman, “Beyond Shallow Models of Emotion,” Cognitive Processing 1, No. 1 (2001).
26. A. Sloman, “Architectural Requirements for Human-Like Agents both Natural and Artificial,” K. Dautenhahn, Editor, Human Cognition and Social Agent Technology, John Benjamins, Amsterdam (2000), pp. 163–195.
27. M. Minsky, “Common Sense-Based Interfaces,” Communications of the ACM 43, No. 8, 67–73 (2001).
28. M. Minsky, “A Framework for Representing Knowledge,” AI Laboratory Memo 306, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1974), reprinted in The Psychology of Computer Vision, Patrick Winston, Editor, McGraw-Hill, New York (1975).
29. D. Riecken, “An Architecture of Integrated Agents,” Communications of the ACM 37, No. 7, 107–116 (1994).